合肥去年“新房”备案均价15186元㎡ 价格环比未上涨
| Pashto | |
|---|---|
| ???? Pax?tó | |
 The word Pax?tó written in the Pashto alphabet | |
| Pronunciation | [p???to], [p?x?to], [p???to], [p???to] |
| Native to | Afghanistan, Pakistan |
| Ethnicity | Pashtuns |
| Speakers | L1: 51 million (2017–2023)[1] L2: 4.9 million (2022)[1] |
Standard forms | |
| Dialects | Pashto dialects |
| Pashto alphabet | |
| Official status | |
Official language in |
|
Recognised minority language in | Pakistan |
| Regulated by | Pashto Academy Quetta |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | ps – Pashto, Pushto |
| ISO 639-2 | pus – Pushto, Pashto |
| ISO 639-3 | pus – inclusive code – Pashto, PushtoIndividual codes: pst – Central Pashtopbu – Northern Pashtopbt – Southern Pashtowne – Wanetsi |
| Glottolog | pash1269 Pashto |
| Linguasphere | 58-ABD-a |
 Areas in Afghanistan and Pakistan where Pashto is: the predominant language spoken alongside other languages | |
Pashto[b] (/?p??to?/,[6][4][5]/?p??to?/ PASH-toh;[c] ????, P?x?tó, [p???to, p?x?to, p???to, p???to]) is an eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family, natively spoken in northwestern Pakistan and southern and eastern Afghanistan. It has official status in Afghanistan and the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It is known in historical Persian literature as Afghani (??????, Afghāni).[8]
Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnic Pashtuns, it is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan alongside Dari,[9][10][11] and it is the second-largest provincial language of Pakistan, spoken mainly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the northern districts of Balochistan.[12] Likewise, it is the primary language of the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is at least 40 million,[13] although some estimates place it as high as 60 million.[14] Pashto is "one of the primary markers of ethnic identity" amongst Pashtuns.[15]
Geographic distribution
A national language of Afghanistan,[16] Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact number of speakers is unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60%[17][18][19][20] of the total population of Afghanistan.
In Pakistan, Pashto is spoken by 15% of its population,[21][22] mainly in the northwestern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern districts of Balochistan province. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province, areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and in Islamabad. Pashto speakers are found in other major cities of Pakistan, most notably Karachi, Sindh,[23][24][25][26] which may have the largest Pashtun population of any city in the world.[27]
Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in India, Tajikistan,[28] and northeastern Iran (primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen, near the Afghan border).[29] In India most ethnic Pashtun (Pathan) peoples speak the geographically native Hindi-Urdu language rather than Pashto, but there are small numbers of Pashto speakers, such as the Sheen Khalai in Rajasthan,[30] and the Pathan community in the city of Kolkata, often nicknamed the Kabuliwala ("people of Kabul").[31][32] Pashtun diaspora communities in other countries around the world speak Pashto, especially the sizable communities in the United Arab Emirates[33] and Saudi Arabia.
Afghanistan
Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari Persian.[34] Since the early 18th century, the monarchs of Afghanistan have been ethnic Pashtuns (except for Habibullāh Kalakāni in 1929).[35] Persian, the literary language of the royal court,[36] was more widely used in government institutions, while the Pashtun tribes spoke Pashto as their native tongue. King Amanullah Khan began promoting Pashto during his reign (1926–1929) as a marker of ethnic identity and as a symbol of "official nationalism" after the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, which restored Afghan control over their foreign policy.[35] In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration, and art with the establishment of a Pashto Society Pashto Anjuman in 1931[37] and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy (Pashto Tolana) in 1937.[38] Muhammad Na'im Khan, the minister of education between 1938 and 1946, inaugurated the formal policy of promoting Pashto as Afghanistan's national language, leading to the commission and publication of Pashto textbooks.[39] The Pashto Tolana was later incorporated into the Academy of Sciences Afghanistan in line with Soviet model following the Saur Revolution in 1978.[40]
Although officially supporting the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a "sophisticated language and a symbol of cultured upbringing".[35] King Zahir Shah (reigning 1933–1973) thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933 that officials were to study and utilize both Persian and Pashto.[41] In 1936 a royal decree of Zahir Shah formally granted Pashto the status of an official language,[42] with full rights to use in all aspects of government and education – despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun royal family and bureaucrats mostly spoke Persian.[38] Thus Pashto became a national language, a symbol for Pashtun nationalism.
The constitutional assembly reaffirmed the status of Pashto as an official language in 1964 when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari.[43][44] The lyrics of the national anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto.
Pakistan
In British India, prior to the creation of Pakistan by the British government, the 1920s saw the blossoming of Pashto language in the then NWFP: Abdul Ghafar Khan in 1921 established the Anjuman-e- Islah al-Afaghina (Society for the Reformation of Afghans) to promote Pashto as an extension of Pashtun culture; around 80,000 people attended the Society's annual meeting in 1927.[45] In 1955, Pashtun intellectuals including Abdul Qadir formed the Pashto Academy Peshawar on the model of Pashto Tolana formed in Afghanistan.[46] In 1974, the Department of Pashto was established in the University of Balochistan for the promotion of Pashto.[47]
In Pakistan, Pashto is the first language around of 15% of its population (per the 1998 census).[48] However, Urdu and English are the two official languages of Pakistan. Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the regional language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and north Balochistan.[49] Yet, the primary medium of education in government schools in Pakistan is Urdu.[50][51]
The lack of importance given to Pashto and its neglect has caused growing resentment amongst Pashtuns.[52][53][54][55] It is noted that Pashto is taught poorly in schools in Pakistan.[56] Moreover, in government schools material is not provided for in the Pashto dialect of that locality, Pashto being a dialectically rich language.[57] Further, researchers have observed that Pashtun students are unable to fully comprehend educational material in Urdu.[58]
Professor Tariq Rahman states:[59]
"The government of Pakistan, faced with irredentist claims from Afghanistan on its territory, also discouraged the Pashto Movement and eventually allowed its use in peripheral domains only after the Pakhtun elite had been co-opted by the ruling elite...Thus, even though there is still an active desire among some Pakhtun activists to use Pashto in the domains of power, it is more of a symbol of Pakhtun identity than one of nationalism."
— Tariq Rahman, The Pashto language and identity-formation in Pakistan
Robert Nicols states:[60]
"In the end, national language policy, especially in the field of education in the NWFP, had constructed a type of three tiered language hierarchy. Pashto lagged far behind Urdu and English in prestige or development in almost every domain of political or economic power..."
— Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors, Pashto Language Policy and Practice in the North West Frontier Province
Although Pashto used as a medium of instruction in schools for Pashtun students results in better understanding and comprehension for students when compared to using Urdu, still the government of Pakistan has only introduced Pashto at the primary levels in state-run schools.[61] Taimur Khan remarks: "the dominant Urdu language squeezes and denies any space for Pashto language in the official and formal capacity. In this contact zone, Pashto language exists but in a subordinate and unofficial capacity".[62]
History
Some linguists have argued that Pashto is descended from Avestan or a variety very similar to it, while others have attempted to place it closer to Bactrian.[63][64][65] However, neither position is universally agreed upon. What scholars do agree on is the fact that Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language sharing characteristics with Eastern Middle Iranian languages such as Bactrian, Khwarezmian and Sogdian.[66][67]
Compare with other Eastern Iranian Languages and Old Avestan:
| "I am seeing you" | |
|---|---|
| Pashto | ?? ?? ???? Z? tā win??m |
| Old Avestan[68][69] | Az??m θβā vaēnamī |
| Ossetian | ?з д? уынын /?z d? w?n?n/ |
| Ormuri[70] | ?? ?? ?? ????? Az bū tū dzunim |
| Yidgha[71] | Zo vtō vīn?m ?st? (t?) |
| Munji[72] | Z? ftō wīn?m |
| Shughni[73] | Uz tu winum |
| Wakhi[73] | Wuz tau win?m |
Strabo, who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that the tribes inhabiting the lands west of the Indus River were part of Ariana. This was around the time when the area inhabited by the Pashtuns was governed by the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. From the 3rd century CE onward, they are mostly referred to by the name Afghan (Abgan).[74][75][76][8]
Abdul Hai Habibi believed that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri of the early Ghurid period in the 8th century, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana. P???a Xazāná (??? ?????) is a Pashto manuscript[77] claimed to be written by Mohammad Hotak under the patronage of the Pashtun emperor Hussain Hotak in Kandahar; containing an anthology of Pashto poets. However, its authenticity is disputed by scholars such as David Neil MacKenzie and Lucia Serena Loi.[78][79] Nile Green comments in this regard:[80]
"In 1944, Habibi claimed to have discovered an eighteenth-century manuscript anthology containing much older biographies and verses of Pashto poets that stretched back as far as the eighth century. It was an extraordinary claim, implying as it did that the history of Pashto literature reached back further in time than Persian, thus supplanting the hold of Persian over the medieval Afghan past. Although it was later convincingly discredited through formal linguistic analysis, Habibi's publication of the text under the title Pata Khazana ('Hidden Treasure') would (in Afghanistan at least) establish his reputation as a promoter of the wealth and antiquity of Afghanistan's Pashto culture."
— Afghan History Through Afghan Eyes
From the 16th century, Pashto poetry become very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote in Pashto are Bayazid Pir Roshan (a major inventor of the Pashto alphabet), Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Tokhi, and Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the Durrani Empire. The Pashtun literary tradition grew in the backdrop to weakening Pashtun power following Mughal rule: Khushal Khan Khattak used Pashto poetry to rally for Pashtun unity and Pir Bayazid as an expedient means to spread his message to the Pashtun masses.[81]
For instance Khushal Khattak laments in :[82]
"The Afghans (Pashtuns) are far superior to the Mughals at the sword,
Were but the Afghans, in intellect, a little discreet. If the different tribes would but support each other,
Kings would have to bow down in prostration before them"
— Khushal Khan Khattak, Selections from the Poetry of the Afghans
Grammar
Pashto is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language with split ergativity. In Pashto, this means that the verb agrees with the subject in transitive and intransitive sentences in non-past, non-completed clauses, but when a completed action is reported in any of the past tenses, the verb agrees with the subject if it is intransitive, but with the object if it is transitive.[16] Verbs are inflected for present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect, and past perfect tenses. There is also an inflection for the subjunctive mood.
Nouns and adjectives are inflected for two genders (masculine and feminine),[83] two numbers (singular and plural), and four cases (direct, oblique, ablative, and vocative). The possessor precedes the possessed in the genitive construction, and adjectives come before the nouns they modify.
Unlike most other Indo-Iranian languages, Pashto uses all three types of adpositions—prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.
Phonology
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | e | ? | o |
| Open | a | ɑ |
Consonants
| Labial | Dental/ alveolar |
Post- alveolar |
Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ? | ? | ||||||||||||
| Plosive | p | b | t | d | ? | ? | k | ɡ | (q) | |||||||
| Affricate | t?s | d?z | t?? | d?? | ||||||||||||
| Fricative | (f) | s | z | ? | ? | ? | ? | x | ? | h | ||||||
| Approximant | l | ?* | j | w | ||||||||||||
| Rhotic | r | |||||||||||||||
*The retroflex rhotic or lateral, tends to be a lateral flap [??] at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap [?] or approximant [?] elsewhere.[85][86]
Vocabulary
In Pashto, most of the native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages.[67] As noted by Josef Elfenbein, "Loanwords have been traced in Pashto as far back as the third century B.C., and include words from Greek and probably Old Persian".[87] For instance, Georg Morgenstierne notes the Pashto word ???? me???n i.e. a hand-mill as being derived from the Ancient Greek word μηχαν? (mēkhan?, i.e. a device).[88] Post-7th century borrowings came primarily from Persian and Hindi-Urdu, with Arabic words being borrowed through Persian,[89] but sometimes directly.[90][91] Modern speech borrows words from English, French, and German.[92]
However, a remarkably large number of words are unique to Pashto.[93][94]
Here is an exemplary list of Pure Pashto and borrowings:[95][96]
| Pashto | Persian Loan | Arabic Loan | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| ???? ?opá? |
???? khidmat |
???? khidmah |
service |
| ??? hátsa |
???? ku?e? |
effort/try | |
| ?????, ????? malg??ray, malg??re |
???? dost |
friend | |
| ??? na???i |
???? jahān |
???? dunyā |
world |
| ???/???? tod/táwda |
??? garm |
hot | |
| ????? a?tyā? |
????? ?arurah |
need | |
| ???? híla |
???? umid |
hope | |
| ? ... ?? ??? d?...p? a?á |
???? bāra |
about | |
| ?????? bol??la |
????? qasidah |
an ode |
Due to the incursion of Persian and Persianized-Arabic in modern speech, linguistic purism of Pashto is advocated to prevent its own vocabulary from dying out.[94][self-published source][97][98]
Classical vocabulary
There is a lot of old vocabulary that has been replaced by borrowings e.g. ???? plaz[99] 'throne' with ??? takht, from Persian.[100][101] Or the word ?????? yagānagí[102] meaning 'uniqueness' used by Pir Roshan Bayazid.[103] Such classical vocabulary is being reintroduced to modern Pashto.[104] Some words also survive in dialects like ???? ???? 'the bride-room'.[105]
Example from Khayr al-Bayān:[103]
- ... ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??????
- Transliteration: ... be-yagānag??i, be-karar??i wi aw p? badxw??i kx?e wi p? gunāhā?n
- Translation: "... without singularity/uniqueness, without calmness and by bad-attitude are on sin ."
Writing system
Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Perso-Arabic alphabet or Arabic script.[106] In the 16th century, Bayazid Pir Roshan introduced 13 new letters to the Pashto alphabet. The alphabet was further modified over the years.
The Pashto alphabet consists of 45 to 46 letters[107] and 4 diacritic marks. Latin Pashto is also used.[108][109][110] In Latin transliteration, stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ??, á, ā?, ú, ó, í and é. The following table (read from left to right) gives the letters' isolated forms, along with possible Latin equivalents and typical IPA values:
| ? ā /ɑ, a/ |
? b /b/ |
? p /p/ |
? t /t/ |
? ? /?/ |
? (s) /s/ |
? ? /d??/ |
? g, dz /d?z/ |
? ? /t??/ |
? c, ts /t?s/ |
? (h) /h/ |
? x /x/ |
| ? d /d/ |
? ? /?/ |
? (z) /z/ |
? r /r/ |
? ? /?, ?, ?/ |
? z /z/ |
? ? /?/ |
? ? (or ??) /?, ?, ɡ, ?/ |
? s /s/ |
? ? /?/ |
? x? (or ??) /?, ?, x, ?/ | |
| ? (s) /s/ |
? (z) /z/ |
? (t) /t/ |
? (z) /z/ |
? (ā) /ɑ/ |
? ? /?/ |
? f /f/ |
? q /q/ |
? k /k/ |
? ? /ɡ/ |
? l /l/ | |
| ? m /m/ |
? n /n/ |
? ? /?/ |
? ? , ń /??/ |
? w, u, o /w, u, o/ |
? h, a /h, a/ |
? ? /?/ |
? y, i /j, i/ |
? e /e/ |
? ay, y /ai, j/ |
? ?i /?i/ |
? ?i, y /?i, j/ |
Dialects
Pashto dialects are divided into two categories, the "soft" southern grouping of Pa??tō, and the "hard" northern grouping of Pax?tō (Pakhtu).[111] Each group is further divided into a number of dialects. The Southern dialect of Tareeno is the most distinctive Pashto dialect.
- Abdaili or Kandahar dialect (or South Western dialect)
- Kakar dialect (or South Eastern dialect)
- Shirani dialect
- Mandokhel dialect
- Marwat-Bettani dialect
- Southern Karlani group
- Central Ghilji dialect (or North Western dialect)
- Yusapzai and Momand dialect (or North Eastern dialect)
- Northern Karlani group
- Wardak dialect
- Taniwola dialect
- Mangal tribe dialect
- Khosti dialect
- Zadran dialect
- Bangash-Orakzai-Turi-Zazi dialect
- Afridi dialect
- Khogyani dialect
3. Tareeno Dialect
Literary Pashto
Literary Pashto is the artificial variety of Pashto that is used at times as literary register of Pashto. It is said to be based on the North Western dialect, spoken in the central Ghilji region. Literary Pashto's vocabulary, also derives from other dialects.[112]
Criticism
There is no actual Pashto that can be identified as "Standard" Pashto, as Colye remarks:[112]
"Standard Pashto is actually fairly complex with multiple varieties or forms. Native speakers or researchers often refer to Standard Pashto without specifying which variety of Standard Pashto they mean...people sometimes refer to Standard Pashto when they mean the most respected or favorite Pashto variety among a majority of Pashtun speakers."
— Placing Wardak among Pashto Varieties, page 4
According to David MacKenzie, there is no real need to develop a "Standard" Pashto:[113][failed verification]
"The morphological differences between the most extreme north-eastern and south-western dialects are comparatively few and unimportant. The criteria of dialect differentiation in Pashto are primarily phonological. With the use of an alphabet which disguises these phonological differences the language has, therefore, been a literary vehicle, widely understood, for at least four centuries. This literary language has long been referred to in the West as 'common' or 'standard' Pashto without, seemingly, any real attempt to define it."
— A Standard Pashto, page 231
Literature
Pashto-speakers have long had a tradition of oral literature, including proverbs, stories, and poems. Written Pashto literature saw a rise in development in the 17th century mostly due to poets like Khushal Khan Khattak (1613–1689), who, along with Rahman Baba (1650–1715), is widely regarded as among the greatest Pashto poets. From the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1722–1772), Pashto has been the language of the court. The first Pashto teaching text was written during the period of Ahmad Shah Durrani by Pir Mohammad Kakar with the title of Ma?rifat al-Afghānī ("The Knowledge of Afghani [Pashto]"). After that, the first grammar book of Pashto verbs was written in 1805 under the title of Riyā? al-Ma?abbah ("Training in Affection") through the patronage of Nawab Mahabat Khan, son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, chief of the Barech. Nawabullah Yar Khan, another son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, in 1808 wrote a book of Pashto words entitled ?Ajāyib al-Lughāt ("Wonders of Languages").
Poetry example
An excerpt from the Kalām of Rahman Baba:
?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??
?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??
Pronunciation: [z? ra?mɑn p? ?xp?l.a ɡram j?m t??e ma?jan j?m
t??e dɑ nor ?o?p?n me bo?li ɡram p? t?s?]
Transliteration: Z? Rahmā?n p? xp??la gram y?m ?e mayán y?m
?e dā nor ?op??n me bolí gram p? ts?
Translation: "I Rahman, myself am guilty that I am a lover,
On what does this other universe call me guilty."
Proverbs
Pashto also has a rich heritage of proverbs (Pashto matalúna, sg. matál).[114][115] An example of a proverb:
???? ?? ???? ?? ??????
Transliteration: Ob?? p? ?āng n? belé??i
Translation: "One cannot divide water by [hitting it with] a pole."
Phrases
Greeting phrases
| Greeting | Pashto | Transliteration | Literal meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hello | ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?? |
st???ay m?? ?e st???e m?? ?e |
May you not be tired |
| ???? ?? ?? | st???i m?? ??i | May you not be tired [said to people] | |
| ?? ??? ????? | p? xair rā??le | With goodness (you) came | |
| Thank you | ???? | man??na | Acceptance [from the verb ???] |
| Goodbye | ?? ??? ?? ?? | p? m??kha de x?á | On your front be good |
| ???? ????? | xwdā?i pāmā?n | From: ???? ?? ???? [With/On God's security] |
Colors
List of colors
???/ ??? sur/sra [red]
?in / ?na [green]
????? kinaxí [purple]
???/ ???? tor/tóra [black]
?in / ?na [blue]
???? spin/spína [white]
?????? naswārí [brown]
???/ ???? ?e?/?é?a [yellow]
????? ?u?yā? [violet]
?? / ??? x??/x???a [grey]
List of colors borrowed from neighbouring languages
- ?????? nār?njí - orange [from Persian]
- ????? gulābí - pink [from Hindustani, originally Persian]
- ???? nilí - indigo [from Persian, ultimately Sanskrit]]
Times of the day
| Time | Pashto | Transliteration | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| Morning | ???? | gahí? | /ɡa?hid?z/ |
| Noon | ???? | ?armá | /?ar?ma/ |
| Afternoon | ??????? | māspasx?ín | Kandahar: /mɑs.pa??in/ Yusapzai: /mɑs.pa?xin/ Bannuchi: /m??.po??in/ Marwat: /mɑ??pin/ |
| Later afternoon | ??????? ?????? |
māzdigár māzigár |
/mɑz.di.?ɡar/ /mɑ.zi.?ɡar/ |
| Evening | ????? | māx?ā?m | Kandahari: /mɑ??ɑm/ Wardak: /mɑ??ɑm/ Yusapzai: /mɑ?xɑm/ Wazirwola: /lmɑ???m/ Marwat: /mɑ??ɑm/ |
| Late evening | ?????? | māsxután | /mɑs.xw??tan/ /mɑs.x??tan/ |
Months
Pashtuns use the Vikrami calendar:[116]
| # | Vikrami month[117] | Pashto | Pashto [Karlā?í dialects] |
Gregorian months |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chaitra | ???? ?et??r |
???? ?et??r |
March–April |
| 2 | Vaisākha | ??? sāk |
????? wasyók |
April–May |
| 3 | Jyeshta | ??? je? |
??? ?e? |
May–June |
| 4 | āshāda | ??? hā? |
???? awó? |
June–July |
| 5 | Shraavana | ???? ?? ????? sāw??? |
???? wā?sa |
July–August |
| 6 | Bhādra | ???? badrú |
????? bā?dri |
August–September |
| 7 | Ashwina | ??? āsú |
??? ássi |
September–October |
| 8 | Kartika | ???? / ???? kāt??i / kāták |
????? kā?tye |
October–November |
| 9 | Mārgasirsa (Agrahayana) |
???? mang??r |
????? mā?ng?r |
November–December |
| 10 | Pausha | ???? ?ilá |
?? po |
December–January |
| 11 | Māgha | ??? ???? b??la ?ilá |
?????? kunz??la |
January–February |
| 12 | Phālguna | ???? pāgá? |
????? arb???a |
February–March |
Notes
References
- ^ a b Pashto at Ethnologue (28th ed., 2025)
- ^ "Private schools asked to introduce regional languages as compulsory subject". app.com.pk. 28 September 2023. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
- ^ Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 6 April 2010. pp. 845–. ISBN 978-0-08-087775-4.
- ^ a b "Pashto (also Pushtu)". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
- ^ a b "Pashto (also Pushtu)". Oxford Online Dictionaries, UK English. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 1 December 2015.
- ^ "Pashto (less commonly Pushtu)". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
- ^ "Pashto (also Pushto or Pushtu)". Oxford Online Dictionaries, US English. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 20 September 2015.
- ^ a b John Leyden, Esq. M.D.; William Erskine, Esq., eds. (1921). "Events Of The Year 910 (1525)". Memoirs of Babur. Packard Humanities Institute. p. 5. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
To the south is Afghanistān. There are ten or eleven different languages spoken in Kābul: Arabic, Persian, Tūrki, Moghuli, Afghani, Pashāi, Parāchi, Geberi, Bereki, Dari and Lamghāni.
- ^ "Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan". 2004. Archived from the original on 28 October 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
From among the languages of Pashto, Dari, Uzbeki, Turkmani, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani, Pamiri (alsana), Arab and other languages spoken in the country, Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state.
- ^ Constitution of Afghanistan – Chapter 1 The State, Article 16 (Languages) and Article 20 (Anthem)
- ^ Banting, Erinn (2003). Afghanistan: The land. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 4. ISBN 0-7787-9335-4. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ Population by Mother Tongue, Population Census – Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan
- ^ Pashto (2005). Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4. (40 million)
- ^ Penzl, Herbert; Ismail Sloan (2009). A Grammar of Pashto a Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan. Ishi Press International. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-923891-72-5.
Estimates of the number of Pashto speakers range from 40 million to 60 million...
- ^ Hakala, Walter (9 December 2011). Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice. Brill. p. 55. ISBN 978-90-04-21765-2.
As is well known, the Pashtun people place a great deal of pride upon their language as an identifier of their distinct ethnic and historical identity. While it is clear that not all those who self-identify as ethnically Pashtun themselves use Pashto as their primary language, language does seem to be one of the primary markers of ethnic identity in contemporary Afghanistan.
- ^ a b "Pashto language". Encyclop?dia Britannica. Retrieved 7 December 2010.
- ^ "Languages: Afghanistan". Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Retrieved 27 October 2020. (48% L1 + L2)
- ^ Brown, Keith; Sarah Ogilvie (2009). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevie. p. 845. ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population.
- ^ "Pashto". UCLA International Institute: Center for World Languages. University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2010. (50%)
- ^ Kieffer, Ch. M. (1982). "AFGHANISTAN v. Languages". Encyclop?dia Iranica. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
"Pa?tō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans".
- ^ "Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue" (PDF). statpak.gov.pk. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
- ^ "Population by mother tongue" (PDF). www.pbs.gov.pk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
- ^ Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy (17 July 2009). "Karachi's Invisible Enemy". PBS. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
- ^ "In a city of ethnic friction, more tinder". The National. 24 August 2009. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
- ^ "Columnists | The Pakhtun in Karachi". Time. 28 August 2010. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
- ^ [1] Archived 9 December 2012 at archive.today, thefridaytimes
- ^ Lieven, Anatol (4 May 2021). "An Afghan Tragedy: The Pashtuns, the Taliban and the State". Survival. 63 (3): 7–36. doi:10.1080/00396338.2021.1930403. ISSN 0039-6338. S2CID 235219004.
- ^ "Pashto, Southern". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 14th edition. 2000. Archived from the original on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
- ^ "Languages of Iran". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
- ^ Haidar, Suhasini (3 February 2018). "Tattooed 'blue-skinned' Hindu Pushtuns look back at their roots". The Hindu.
- ^ "The 'Kabuliwala' Afghans of Kolkata". BBC News. 23 May 2015.
- ^ "Hindu Pashtuns: How One Granddaughter Uncovered India's Forgotten Links to Afghanistan". 8 August 2018.
- ^ "Languages of United Arab Emirates". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
- ^ Modarresi, Yahya: "Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan, 1911–1916." In: Sociolinguistics, Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915. ISBN 3-11-018418-4 [2]
- ^ a b c Tariq Rahman. "Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan." Contemporary South Asia, July 1995, Vol 4, Issue 2, p151-20.
- ^ Lorenz, Manfred. "Die Herausbildung moderner iranischer Literatursprachen." In: Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung, Vol. 36. Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR. Akademie Verlag, Berlin: 1983. P. 184ff.
- ^ Other sources note 1933, i.e. Johannes Christian Meyer-Ingwersen. Untersuchungen zum Satzbau des Paschto. 1966. Ph.D. Thesis, Hamburg 1966.
- ^ a b Hussain, Rizwan. Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005. p. 63.
- ^ Green, Nile; Arbabzadah, Nushin (2013). Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation. Hurst. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-84904-204-8.
- ^ Green, Nile; Arbabzadah, Nushin (2013). Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation. Hurst. ISBN 978-1-84904-204-8.
- ^ István Fodor, Claude Hagège. Reform of Languages. Buske, 1983. P. 105ff.
- ^ Campbell, George L.: Concise Compendium of the world's languages. London: Routledge 1999.
- ^ Dupree, Louis: "Language and Politics in Afghanistan." In: Contributions to Asian Studies. Vol. 11/1978. p. 131–141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.
- ^ Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?" In: Persian Studies in North America: Studies in Honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.
- ^ Green, Nile; Arbabzadah, Nushin (2013). Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation. Hurst. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-84904-204-8.
- ^ Brown, Michael Edward; Ganguly, Sumit (2003). Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia. MIT Press. pp. 71. ISBN 978-0262523332.
- ^ "Department of Pashto". web.uob.edu.pk. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
- ^ "Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue" (PDF). statpak.gov.pk. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
- ^ Septfonds, D. 2006. Pashto. In: Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. 845 – 848. Keith Brown / Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Elsevier, Oxford: 2009.
- ^ Rahman, Tariq (2004), Craig Baxter (ed.), Education in Pakistan a Survey, Pakistan on the Brink: Politics, Economics and Society, Lexington Books, p. 172, ISBN 978-0195978056
- ^ Rahim, Bushra (28 September 2014). "Will change in medium of instruction improve education in KP?". dawn.com. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
- ^ Daniel Hallberg (1992). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan (PDF). Vol. 4. Quaid-i-Azam University & Summer Institute of Linguistics. p. 36 to 37. ISBN 969-8023-14-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- ^ "? ???? ?????? (?? ??????? ?? ? ?????? ??? ?????)". mashaalradio.org. 22 July 2014. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
- ^ Hywel Coleman (2010). Teaching and learning in Pakistan: the role of language in education (Report). British Council, Pakistan. Archived from the original on 4 November 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ Mohmand, Mureeb (27 April 2014). "The decline of Pashto". The Express Tribune.
...because of the state's patronage, Urdu is now the most widely-spoken language in Pakistan. But the preponderance of one language over all others eats upon the sphere of influence of other, smaller languages, which alienates the respective nationalities and fuels aversion towards the central leadership...If we look to our state policies regarding the promotion of Pashto and the interests of the Pakhtun political elite, it is clear that the future of the Pashto language is dark. And when the future of a language is dark, the future of the people is dark.
- ^ Carter, Lynn. "Socio-Economic Profile of Kurram Agency". Planning and Development Department, Peshawar, NWFP. 1991: 82.
- ^ Carter and Raza. "Socio-Economic Profile of South Waziristan Agency". Planning and Development Department, Peshawar, NWFP. 1990: 69.
Sources say that this is mainly because the Pushto text books in use in the settled areas of N.W.F.P. are written in the Yusufzai dialect, which is not the dialect in use in the Agency
- ^ Hallberg, Daniel. "Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan" (PDF). National Institute of Pakistan Studies Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguisitics. 4: 36.
A brief interview with the principal of the high school in Madyan, along with a number of his teachers, helps to underscore the importance of Pashto in the school domain within Pashtoon territory. He reported that Pashto is used by teachers to explain things to students all the way up through tenth class. The idea he was conveying was that students do not really have enough ability in Urdu to operate totally in that language. He also expressed the thought that Pashto-speaking students in the area really do not learn Urdu very well in public school and that they are thus somewhat ill prepared to meet the expectation that they will know how to use Urdu and English when they reach the college level. He likened the education system to a wall that has weak bricks at the bottom.
- ^ Rahman, Tariq (July 1995). "The Pashto language and identity-formation in Pakistan". Contemporary South Asia. 4 (2): 151–20. doi:10.1080/09584939508719759. ISSN 0958-4935 – via Research Gate.
- ^ Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice. Brill. 9 December 2011. p. 279. ISBN 978-90-04-21765-2.
- ^ Khan, M. Taimur S. (2016). Pakistanizing Pashtun: The linguistic and cultural disruption and re-invention of Pashtun. American University. p. 72.
Urdu which is the native language of only 7.57 per cent of Pakistanis (though widely spoken as the national language and lingua franca in Pakistan) dominates all other local languages; and Pashto which is the native language of 15.42 per cent of the total population has no official recognition beyond primary school...Despite its limited scope, the Pashto-medium schools were a success as the "achievement tests showed an improvement in Pashto medium schools as compared to Urdu medium schools". Nonetheless, the better results have so far not motivated the government to introduce Pashto-medium schools at a larger scale in Pashtun populated areas.
- ^ Khan, M. Taimur S. (2016). Pakistanizing Pashtun: The linguistic and cultural disruption and re-invention of Pashtun. American University. pp. 96–97.
- ^ Darmesteter, James (1890). Chants populaires des Afghans. Paris.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Henning (1960), p. 47. "Bactrian thus 'occupies an intermediary position between Pashto and Yidgha-Munji on the one hand, Sogdian, Choresmian, and Parthian on the other: it is thus in its natural and rightful place in Bactria'."
- ^ Hotak, Muhammad; Habibi, Abd al-Hayy (1997). The Hidden Treasure: A Biography of Pas?htoon Poets. p. 21.
With regard to Morgenstierne's statement that the language is affiliated with eastern Iranian languages there is ample evidence to consider it a Bactrian language.
- ^ Comrie, Bernard (2009). The world's major languages. Routledge.
- ^ a b "AFGHANISTAN vi. Pa?to". G. Morgenstierne. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 22 January 2012. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
Pa?tō undoubtedly belongs to the Northeastern Iranic branch.
- ^ Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-08332-5.
- ^ "Avestan grammar help: Az??m θβ?m vaēnami?". Linguistics Stack Exchange. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ^ Efimov, V. A. (2011). The Ormuri Language in Past and Present. Forum for Language Initiatives. ISBN 978-969-9437-02-1.
- ^ Morgenstierne, Georg (1938). Indo-iranian Frontier Languages, by Georg Morgenstiern. Vol. II. Iranian Pamir Languages (yidgha-munji, Sanglechi-ishkashmi and Wakhi). W. Nygaard.
- ^ In this video, the Pashtun... - Pashtun Studies Network, retrieved 16 October 2021
- ^ a b Can Eastern Iranics Understand Each Other?, 2 May 2021, retrieved 16 October 2021
- ^ "Afghan and Afghanistan". Abdul Hai Habibi. alamahabibi.com. 1969. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "History of Afghanistan". Encyclop?dia Britannica. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
- ^ Noelle-Karimi, Christine; Conrad J. Schetter; Reinhard Schlagintweit (2002). Afghanistan – a country without a state?. University of Michigan, United States: IKO. p. 18. ISBN 3-88939-628-3.
The earliest mention of the name 'Afghan' (Abgan) is to be found in a Sasanid inscription from the third century AD and their language as "Afghani".
- ^ "Pata Khazana" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
- ^ David Neil MacKenzie: David N. Mackenzie: The Development of the Pashto Script. In: Shirin Akiner (Editor): Languages and Scripts of Central Asia. School of Oriental and African Studies, Univ. of London, London 1997, ISBN 978-0-7286-0272-4.p. 142
- ^ Lucia Serena Loi: Il tesoro nascosto degli Afghani. Il Cavaliere azzurro, Bologna 1987, p. 33
- ^ Green, Nile, ed. (2016). Afghan History Through Afghan Eyes. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190247782.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-049223-6.
- ^ Green, Nile; Arbabzadah, Nushin (2013). Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation. Hurst. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-84904-204-8.
- ^ Raverty, Henry G. (2015). Selections from the Poetry of the Afghans: From the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century, Literally Translated from the Original Pushto, with Notices of the Different Authors, and Remarks on the Mystic Doctrine and Poetry of the Sūfis. Cosmo Publications. p. 127. ISBN 978-81-307-1858-3.
- ^ Emeneau, M. B. (1962) "Bilingualism and Structural Borrowing" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106(5): pp. 430–442, p. 441
- ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 15.
- ^ D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed, The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
- ^ Herbert Penzl, 1965, A reader of Pashto, p 7
- ^ Kaye, Alan S. (30 June 1997). Phonologies of Asia and Africa: (including the Caucasus). Eisenbrauns. p. 736. ISBN 978-1-57506-019-4.
- ^ Morgenstierne, Georg (2003). A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto. Reichert. p. 48. ISBN 978-3-89500-364-6.
- ^ John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in éva ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, 2005. p. 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contiguous Iranian, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth centuries"
- ^ Vladimir Kushev (1997). "Areal Lexical Contacts of the Afghan (Pashto) Language (Based on the Texts of the XVI-XVIII Centuries)". Iran and the Caucasus. 1: 159–166. doi:10.1163/157338497x00085. JSTOR 4030748.
- ^ Census Commissioner, India (1937). "Census of India, 1931, Volume 17, Part 2". Times of India: 292. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
At the same time Pashto has borrowed largely from Persian and Hindustani, and through those languages from Arabic.
- ^ Herbert Penzl (January–March 1961). "Western Loanwords in Modern Pashto". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 81 (1): 43–52. doi:10.2307/594900. JSTOR 594900.
- ^ Carol Benson; Kimmo Kosonen (13 June 2013). Language Issues in Comparative Education: Inclusive Teaching and Learning in Non-Dominant Languages and Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 64. ISBN 978-94-6209-218-1.
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- ^ Muhammad Gul Khan Momand Archived 28 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Hewād Afghanistan
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- ^ Pashtoon, Zeeya A. (2009). Pashto–English Dictionary. Dunwoody Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-931546-70-6.
- ^ Momand, Qalandar. "Daryab Pashto Glossary".
- ^ Hladczuk, John (1992). International Handbook of Reading Education. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 148. ISBN 9780313262531.
- ^ Ullah, Noor (2011). Pashto Grammar. AuthorHouse. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4567-8007-4.
- ^ BGN/PCGN romanization
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Bibliography
- Hallberg, Daniel G. (1992). Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan. Vol. 4. National Institute of Pakistani Studies. ISBN 969-8023-14-3. OCLC 1034637486.
- Morgenstierne, Georg (2007) [1926, pub. by Aschehoug, Oslo]. Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan. Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning Serie C I-2. New York: Ishi Press International. ISBN 978-0-923891-09-1.
- Penzl, Herbert (2009) [1955, pub. by American Council of Learned Societies, Washington, DC]. A Grammar of Pashto: A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan. New York: Ishi Press. ISBN 978-0-923891-72-5.
- Penzl, Herbert (2009) [1962, pub. by University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI]. A Reader of Pashto. New York: Ishi Press. ISBN 978-0-923891-71-8.
- Schmidt, Rüdiger, ed. (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Wiesbaden: L. Reichert. ISBN 3-88226-413-6.
Further reading
- Morgenstierne, Georg (1978). "The Place of Pashto among the Iranic Languages and the Problem of the Constitution of Pashtun Linguistic and Ethnic Unity". Pa?to Quarterly. 1 (4): 43–55.
- Boyle David, Anne; Brugman, Claudia, eds. (2014). Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9781614512318. ISBN 978-1-61451-303-2.
External links
- Pashto Dictionary with Phonetic Keyboard & Auto-Suggestion
- Pashto Phonetic Keyboard
- Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan[usurped]
- Henry George Raverty. A Dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or Language of the Afghans. Second edition, with considerable additions. London: Williams and Norgate, 1867.
- D. N. MacKenzie, "A Standard Pashto"[usurped], Khyber.org
- Freeware Online Pashto Dictionaries
- A Pashto Word List
- Origins of Pashto
- Resources for the Study of the Pashto Language
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